This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. Such hypothesis is grounded on the following steps. 133. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. There are other definitions of the word dream, too. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). eCollection 2021 Aug 12. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. We propose that the function of dream sleep (more properly rapid-eye movement or REM sleep) is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 83. Further developments in neurobiological research, including lesion and brain imaging studies, have established a clearer view of the functional neuroanatomy of REM sleep and dreaming. 31. Penile erection, that also occurs in monkeys, is present during desynchronized (paradoxical or REMsleep) but it is not necessarily linked to erotic dreams. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. An official website of the United States government. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. Neurosci Conscious. No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). Sleep Res 1973;4:65. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Experimental study. Analysis of psychological theories concerning functions of dreams. The earliest theory to emerge, Freuds psychoanalytic theory, takes an observational approach to identifying the function that dreams serve. Freud theorized that dreams are the result of unfulfilled wishes or desires in the subjects life. (57). Roffwarg et al. A powerful defensive behavior, the withdrawal "reflex" (or retraction behavior, as we prefer to call it), is also completely inhibited during this phase of sleep. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. Perspective of Motor Behavior and its Neural Basis. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. 57. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. Foulkes D. Children's dreams. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Aristotle. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 46. 40. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. Perachio AA. Hobson JA. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. 86. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. Bookshelf However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. Behav Brain Res 1997;84:109-16. NeuroReport 1997;8:3-7. Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. 129. 79. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. As mentioned above, Plato, preceding by twenty four centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, believed that "forbidden" dreams, such as incestuous or criminal dreams, were only a way of doing incestual sex or killing someone without punishment. In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. 102. Braun et al. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. (eds. San Diego, 1973. He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. 69. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. 5. 132. & Ajmone-Marsan, C. Proposed by Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the theory posits that dreams are your brains attempts to make sense of random patterns of firing neurons while you slumber. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. 47. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. They include facilitation of memory storage, In humans a dream may be reported and its content can thus be analyzed. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. Sleep and dreaming: induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. Revonsuo A. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. In cats desynchronized sleep appears also as tonic cortical desynchronization (figure 3) but in the hippocampus, septal area and amygdala theta waves predominate, as in rats and rabbits. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. 19. Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. Erlbaum, 1992. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, The function of dreaming Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. They include facilitation of memory storage, reverse learning, anatomical and functional brain maturation, catecholamine restoration, psychoanalytical (wish fulfilment or otherwise). It i 101. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. (eds.) Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. the apparitions. 51. (ed. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. 11. 134. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. Roldan E, Weiss TT. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. Epub 2009 Oct 1. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). WebAs the foregoing discussion of rival theories of dream function suggests, there are many findings that contradict the idea that dreams have any kind of physiological or With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. (eds.) Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. ), Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. In: Baust, W. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. (ed. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. In: Antrobus, J.S. Science 1966;153:206-8. 84. 100. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). Timo-Iaria C, Valle AC. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. Maquet P, Peters JM, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, et al. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. As such, this explanation may be interpreted as a way of doing something that we should never be allowed to do without paying for it. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. 106. 70. Peyrethon J, Dusan-Peyrethon D. tude polygraphique du cycle veille-sommeil chez trois genres de rptiles. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Brain Res 1970;19:263-75. 65. 88. By lesioning the alphacoeruleus nuclei such an inhibitory effect is prevented and during oniric activity the movements generated by the dream itself can be expressed, as was clearly demonstrated in Jouvet's Laboratory (50,51) in cats; the animal suddenly gets up, walks, miews and strikes with the paws, as if the animal were awake. 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